Wilbur and OBy the early 1900s African Americans in the South suffered from disenfranchisement, segregation, and widespread physical violence that included lynchings. Conditions in the North were not as appalling, yet usually brought second-class citizenship. On the centennial of Lincoln's birthday, February 12, 1909, a biracial group including W. E. B. Du Bois, John Dewey, Jane Addams, and Oswald Garrison Villard organized the NAACP to oppose segregation, promote equal educational opportunities, and fight for the enforcement of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments. Du Bois was named an officer and editor of the organization's journal, The Crisis.

Suggestions for Term Papers

Muse, Edward B. Paying for Freedom: History of the NAACP and the Life Membership Program, 1909–1987 . Baltimore : National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, 1986. Interesting narrative of the program to finance the organization from the time of its inception.

Ovington, Mary White. Black and White Sat Down Together: The Reminiscences of an NAACP Founder. Ralph E. Luke, ed. New York: Feminist Press (CUNY), 1995. A fascinating and valuable memoir.

Zangrando, Robert L. The NAACP Crusade against Lynching, 1909–1950 . Philadelphia : Temple University Press, 1980. Excellent history of this aspect of the association's work.

BIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES

Harlan, Louis. Booker T. Washington . (1972). Reprint. New York : Oxford University Press, 1983. 2 vols. Incomparable prize-winning study.

———, et al., eds. The Booker T. Washington Papers . Urbana : University of Illinois Press, 1972–1989. 14 vols. Extraordinary collection of sources for Washington and other African American leaders of his time.

Hovde, Jane. Jane Addams . New York : Facts on File, 1989. Concise biography of the influential social worker who helped create the NAACP.

Humes, Dollena J. Oswald Garrison Villard, Liberal of the 1920s . (1960). Reprint. Westport , CT : Greenwood , 1977. Biography of the journalist who helped found the NAACP.

Lewis, David Levering. W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race, 1868–1919 . New York : H. Holt, 1993. First part of a projected two-volume effort. Detailed study with extensive bibliography.

Rockefeller, Steven C. John Dewey: Religious Faith and Democratic Humanism . New York : Columbia University Press, 1991. Detailed examination into Dewey's philosophy. Provides excellent insight into the life orientation of one of the NAACP founders.

Wedin, Carolyn. Inheritors of the Spirit: Mary White Ovington and the Founding of the NAACP . New York : Wiley, 1997. Recent study of Ovington's life and influence.

AUDIOVISUAL SOURCES

W. E. B. Du Bois: A Biography in Four Voices . San Francisco : California Newsreel, 1995. Four prominent African-Americans narrate a period in Du Bois's life.

WORLD WIDE WEB

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. ‘‘What You Should Know About the NAACP.'' NAACP Online . September 1997. http://www.naacp.org/about/factsheet.html A fact sheet that provides an excellent overview of the NAACP and its development. Most interesting is the six-page history by Mary White Ovington as printed in 1914.