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Let us examine the “socially constructed” perspective of accounting history. The New Accounting Historians give to accounting the roles which are much wider than just purely functional, that accounting acts in society and organizations. In connection with this question, according to Walker (1995), we should turn to the opinion of Burchel which was supported by the researches who work within New Accounting History: “The consequences that accounting systems have cannot be considered to be simple reflections of the interests which might have given rise to their creation… For once in operation, accounting systems are organizational phenomena. Indeed, having their own modus operandi they themselves can impose constraints on organizational functioning, often contributing in the process to the effective definition of interests rather than simply expressing those which are pregiven… (Accounting systems) become mechanisms around which interests are negotiated, counter claims articulated and political processes explicated”.
Stevelinck (1985) means that accounting is a politically and socially constructed criteria but not neutral and objective ones. Accounting data should also be used for political and social reasons and not only as an answer to the economical demands.
From the alternative perspective the term “accounting” is replaced by the term “calculation”. This method is used for getting more possibilities to learn the history of accounting and to broaden the opportunities for tracing its development from past to nowadays. According to McConnell & Brue (2007), we see that Miller, one of the representatives of the alternative perspectives of accounting history, considers that this is a try to evade an “a priori limiting of the field of study of accounting as it currently exists, or to a particular accounting technique such a double – entry book-keeping”. He also thinks that it helps to support peculiar relations of influence and power.
Two other researches representing the alternative perspective of accounting history Carmona & Ezzamel (2004) argue that accounting is first of all the habit to enter a written record of activities and items in a visible form. For them accounting is also a type of signs which name and count the activities and items that are recorded. They consider that accounting is a technology of valuing and quantification. For Carmona & Ezzamel (2004) accounting is a “constructor of value”.
As for the origin of the accounting the alternative researches pay more attention on the outcomes, results of the past. They also study the micro and macro levels of the economy and society. It is also should be noticed that the representatives of the alternative perspective of accounting history are not obsessed with the origin of accounting but they focus on the social and political settings of that time. The New Account Historians refuse the model “demand-response” for two reasons. The first reason is that the role of accounting practices in modern organizations and society can not be reduced just to the absolutely economical and rational. The second reason is that such reduction is becoming much more problematic when it considers the earlier periods of history. It happens because of the reason that the modes of thinking and acting were different at those early periods and they confirmed the functioning of accounting at that time. buy term paper
Question 4.
In our research paper we are going to examine and analyze the article under the title “Accounting for needs? Formula funding in the UK schools sector”. The article was written by the author Gloria Agyemang working at School of Management, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, UK. The article was published in the journal under the title Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal, 2010.
In this article the author examines the problem of funding of the school sector. She is trying to find the answer on the question: Whose needs are more important in the development of the needs-based funding formula– the funders’ needs or the service providers’ needs? To give the information in the article and to answer the question the author Gloria Agyemang (2010) analyzes the information get from the results of the monitoring of interview data and documents gathered by the United Kingdom local education authority about the development of the “needs-based” formula for dividing resources among the schools.
The author also uses the data of the researches of Levacˇic and Ross. These researchers suggest five criteria which are character for different stages of the development of formula. These criteria are the following: efficiency, effectiveness, integrity, equity and accountability. Levacˇic and Ross state that these criteria are connected and can not be separated. In this article Gloria Agyemang (2010) affirms that it goes without saying that the formula funding is a more objective method of the allocation of resources. However, the needs of the service providers are also included in this method as in other methods of allocation of resources among the funders and the service providers. In this article there is a little disadvantage. Here only the funding of schools is considered. Consequently, a great amount of work is in prospect for investigating the formula funding in other public services. On the assumption of the material worked and analyzed it is possible to affirm that the discussions that sometimes take place between the funders and the service providers must be encouraged by the representatives of policy. This is needed to provide the allocations of resources that would be acceptable for the service providers.
This article gives us a very important analysis of the funding formula of allocation of resources in schools and examines to what extends the needs of the funders and of the service providers are included into it. The processes of allocation depend on the processes of funding that are based on the power relationships between the funders and the users. In general, the funding formula does not have differences from other methods of allocation of resources. It should be noted that the formula itself is being in discussion and its benefits are to be found. It should be remained that the resources are not endless and that is why the problem of their allocation will always be competitive and will stay in the field of politics.
As we can see from the written above the article of Gloria Agyemang (2010) is interlaced with the aspects studied before. It is closely connected with the questions examined in the previous sections. We absolutely agree with the opinion of the author and recognize that her analysis is very important for accounting.
So, in this research paper such issues as the description of three theories of regulation, examination of the positive accounting theory and its role in the development of the accounting practices, discussion of the perspective of accounting history and analyze of an article on accounting have been uncovered.

 
References
Agyemang, G. (2010). “Accounting for needs? Formula funding in the UK schools sector.” Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp. 82-110. Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Carmona, S. & Ezzamel, M. (2004). Accounting History Research: Traditional and New Accounting History Perspectives.
Englard, B. (2007). Schaum’s Outline of Theory and Problems of Intermediate Accounting II. McGraw-Hill.
McConnell, C. & Brue, M. (2007). Economics. McGraw Hill Higher Education.
Stevelinck, E. (1985). “Accounting in Ancient Times”, The Accounting Historians Journal, Vol. 12, No. 1.
Walker, S. (1995). “The Genesis of Professional Organization in Scotland: a Contextual Analysis”, Accounting, Organizations & Society, Vol. 20, No. 4.